First lesson: Tag questions

First of all, what is a "tag question"?

A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a mini-question. The whole sentence is a "tag question", and the mini-question at the end is called a "question tag".

Purpose

We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They mean something like: "Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in English.

Basic structure

Positive statement, negative tag

Snow is white, isn't it?

Negative statement, positive tag

You don't like me, do you?

Affirmative statements with the verb "to be"

It's a beautiful day, isn't it? 
Martha is angry, isn't she? 
You are really tired, aren't you? 
They're very nice people, aren't they? 
You are coming tomorrow, aren't you? 
Pedro's flying now, isn't he? 

There's only one exception to this rule: 

I'm late, aren't I?
I'm arriving late at night, aren't I? 

Note: Although it is technically "accepted" amongst English speakers,  strictly grammatically speaking, it should be  as follows:

I'm late, am I not?
I'm arriving late at night, am I not? 

Again, pretty much everyone in the United States will always use "aren't I" instead of "am I not", simply because that's the way they have always spoken. "Am I not" is considered by many, as an extremely formal way to address someone, rarely used in spoken English but only in written English, like in formal letters and such.

Negative statements with the verb "to be"

I'm not late, am I?
It isn't a beautiful day, is it?
Martha isn't angry, is she? 
You aren't really tired, are you? 
They aren't very nice people, are they? 
You aren't coming tomorrow, are you? 
Pedro isn't flying now, is he? 

Affirmative statements with the verb "to be" in simple past

It was a beautiful day, wasn't it?
Martha was angry, wasn't she? 
You were really tired, weren't you? 
You were studying at 6, weren't you? 
He was flying when I phoned, wasn't he? 

Affirmative statements with other common verbs

You went to Costa Rica in 1990, didn't you? 
Elena has traveled a lot, hasn't she? 
Ann will be here soon, won't she? 
Tom should pass his exam, shouldn't he?
You can play the violin, can't you?
He could find a job, couldn't he?

Imperative, suggestions and invitations

Let's go out for a walk, shall we? 
Let's study tomorrow morning, shall we?
Open the door, will you? 
Don't smoke in this room, will you?

First lesson: Small talk

First of all, what does "small talk" mean?

It is an informal type of discourse that does not cover any functional topics of conversation or any transactions that need to be addressed.

Purpose

In spite of seeming to have little useful purpose, small talk is a bonding ritual and a strategy for managing interpersonal distance. It serves many functions in helping to define the relationships between friends, work colleagues, and new acquaintances. In particular, it helps new acquaintances to explore and categorize each other's social position. Small talk is closely related to the need for people to maintain positive face — to feel approved-of by those who are listening to them. It lubricates social interactions in a very flexible way, although the desired function is often dependent on the point in the conversation at which the small talk occurs:

1. At the beginning of a conversation

Where there is already a relationship between the two talkers, their small talk serves as a gentle introduction before engaging in more functional topics of conversation. It allows them to signal their own mood and to sense the mood of the other person. In a business meeting, it enables people to establish each others' reputation and level of expertise. When the talkers do not know each other, it allows them to show that they have friendly intentions and desire some sort of positive interaction.

2. At the end of a conversation

Suddenly ending an exchange may risk appearing to reject the other person. Small talk can be used to mitigate that rejection, affirm the relationship between the two people, and soften the parting.

3. As a space filler

In many cultures, silences between two people are usually considered uncomfortable. Tension can be reduced by starting phatic talk until a more substantial subject arises.

Topics

The topics of small talk conversations are generally less important than their social function. The selected topic usually depends on any pre-existing relationship between the two people, and the circumstances of the conversation. In either case, someone initiating small talk will tend to choose a topic for which they can assume a shared background knowledge, to prevent the conversation being too one-sided.

Topics can be summarized as being either direct or indirect. Direct topics include personal observations such as health or looks. Indirect topics refer to a situational context such as the latest news, or the conditions of the communicative situation. Some topics are considered to be 'safe' in most circumstances:

a) The weather

b) Recent shared experiences, for example "Good party last night, wasn't it?"

c) Television and films

The Front of Armament

Salutations, this is Murata Shougo, head of the Seventh Generation of the Front of Armament (TFOA). I bid you welcome to my lair. Please, make yourselves comfortable while you rest in my domain.